What is Dharma in Buddhism?
The Buddha Dharma and the countless dharmas
Preliminary remark
We use the terms „Dharma“ and „Buddha-Dharma“ regularly on this website.
In the article „What is Dharma“ we talked about the concept of dharma in various religious and secular contexts.
Today we are talking about the term „Dharma“ in Buddhism.
Let's remember: „Dharma“ has two meanings in Buddhism, depending on the context, which have developed over the centuries from the original teaching.
1. dharma in the narrower sense are the words of the Buddha.
2. dharmas in the broader sense are the philosophical and psychological concepts that emerged long after the Buddha's death, were deepened and continuously developed.
Let's take a look at these two meanings in their respective contexts:
As in the past, so today I describe nothing other than the conditions of suffering; and I teach nothing other than the cessation of suffering.
Shakyamuni Buddha, Majihima Nikaya 221
Words of the Buddha in the Pali Canon
Dharma in the narrower sense
The above quote from the Buddha is the shortest version of the Buddha's teachings that we know: Everything he taught revolved around the causes of suffering and the way to end it.
He formulated the conditions for suffering and the way to end suffering in his first discourses in the Four Noble Truths:
1. suffering is in every life.
2. this suffering has a cause.
3. when the cause is removed, there is no more suffering.
4. the way to eliminate the cause is the Noble Eightfold Path.
But how were these words of the Buddha handed down - and where do we find them today?
The earliest Buddhist communities attached great importance to preserving the Buddha's teachings. What we know today as Dharma in the narrower sense is the collected reports of these speeches - handed down orally and later written down in the so-called Pali Canon or Tipitaka.
This collection forms the basis of the oldest Buddhist schools to this day. It is divided into three large sections - the so-called „Three Baskets“ - which preserve different aspects of the teachings:
the rules of living together,
the actual teachings of the Buddha and
the philosophical and psychological analysis.
Let's take a closer look at these three areas:
The three baskets (Tripitaka or in German: Tipitaka)
The early teachings of Buddhism were initially recited orally and were only formulated in writing centuries after the Buddha's death in three categories - also known as the three „baskets“. These are
1. the rules of the order (discipline - Vinaya) of the Buddha's community of monks and nuns; they are
2. the teachings of the Buddha (Sutras);
3. and the Abhidharma (philosophy and psychology). They are not concerned with literal doctrines, but with systematic, abstract analyses of the mind, phenomena and laws.
Together with Buddha and Sangha (the community), the Buddha Dharma forms the „Three Jewels“ (Triratna) to which Buddhists take refuge.
The word of the Buddha?
It is said that in the Pali Canon we have the authentic word of the Buddha.
Is that correct?
Yes and no.
What the Pali canon passes on to us are reports of the Buddha's words, as he himself did not write anything. It is unclear whether he was able to write at all. He relied on the monks to memorize his teachings and pass them on faithfully to future generations - as is customary in the Indian tradition. For centuries, the Buddha's words were recited and passed on orally by specialized monks.
Buddhist discourses almost invariably begin with the words: „So I've heard.“
This formula probably comes from Ānanda, who passed on the teachings by heart after the Buddha's death.
It marks the beginning of the oral tradition - and is traditionally understood as the „seal of authenticity“:
The speech that now follows, according to the signal to the congregation, was not invented - it was heard.
In a culture without writing, this was crucial: repetition, structure, collective recitation - all this ensured the transmission of the Dharma for centuries.
The inner form of the sutras - their rhythm, their repetitions, their fixed images - also arose from this recitation tradition and served the purpose of memorization.
Palm leaf manuscripts
This changed in the first century BC. The reason lay in the invasions of warlike Tamils from South India, who devastated Ceylon and laid the royal capital of Anuradhapura in ruins along with its Buddhist monasteries. In this threatening situation, some older monks (thera) decided to save the teachings of the Buddha from destruction by writing them down. Under the patronage of the newly victorious King Vattagamani Abhaya (reigned 89-77 BC), they summoned the island's canon reciters to the Alokalena Monastery (now Aluvihara), hidden among the rocks, to dictate the Buddha's Dharma to people who knew how to write (Mahāvamsa, chapter 33, verses 100-101,2). The dried and smoothly sanded leaves of the talipat palm were used as writable material.
The palm leaf manuscripts that were created in this way were kept in boxes made of wickerwork (pitaka). This is why the Buddhist canon consisting of the three collections Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma is called the „three basket“ - Tripitaka or in German: Tipitaka.
This is roughly what the palm leaf manuscripts look like, here is one from Thailand:
The three baskets
The next picture shows the three baskets schematically, with their collections for the Discipline, the Teaching speeches and the Philosophy.
The Vinaya-Pitaka is the first basket of the Pali canon and contains the rules for monks (Bhikkhus) and nuns (Bhikkhunis). He mainly answers questions about discipline, ethics and living together in the Sangha.
In the Vinaya-Pitaka the introductory formula „Evam me sutam“ (Pali) appears - „So I have heard“ less frequently than in the Sutta Pitaka, but it does occur - especially in the sections that explain rule violations and are backed up by stories. Some larger framework texts of the Vinaya also begin with „Evam me sutam“
The Sutta-Pitaka is the second basket of the Pali canon and contains the teachings of the Buddha. It answers a number of central questions about the Dharma, practice and human existence.
Most of the sutras in the Sutta Pitaka begin with the formula „Evam me sutam“ (Pali) - „So I have heard“. This formula indicates that the transmitter (usually Ananda) has heard the teaching directly from the Buddha and is now reproducing it verbatim. It is a stylistic device of oral tradition and signals: This is authentic teaching of the Buddha.
The Abhidhamma-Pitaka is the third basket of the Pali canon and contains a systematic analysis of Buddhist teachings. While the Sutta-Pitaka deals with practical instruction and ethical orientation, the Abhidhamma examines the underlying structure of reality.
Above all, it answers questions about the nature of the mind, reality and the functioning of karma and liberation.
In the Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, the introductory formula „Evam me sutam“ („Thus have I heard“) is usually not present.
In Theravāda Buddhism in particular, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is considered to belong to the triad, whereas in later Buddhist traditions this affiliation is less emphasized. There, the Abhidharma and the later Mahayana literature tend to belong to the Dharma in the broader sense. These distinctions are an expression of the ongoing reflection, interpretation and further development of Buddhist teachings - philosophical deepening and expansion of the original Dharma teachings.
If you dare, you can Here is a graphical overview of the Tipitaka. But don't be overwhelmed: we will approach this convolute carefully in the future and explain important concepts in detail.
For today, it is enough that the term „Dharma“ in the narrower sense has been limited to the teachings in the books of the three-basket - and that there are three subdivisions in the Buddhist library:
Discipline (rules of the order),
Teachings,
Philosophy and psychology.
Thanks to the efforts of each generation of teachers and students, the chain of Buddha's teachings (Dharma) has not been broken to this day. This is why Buddhism is still a living tradition after 2,500 years.
Now we will approach the term „Dharma in the broader sense“:
Metaphysics
Dharmas in the broader sense
Dharmas in the broader sense: In Buddhist metaphysics, the term is used in the plural (dharmas) to describe the totality of all elements and phenomena that make up the world.
A dharma(s) is a basic component of the world (Dharma is everything that is the case - and also everything that is not the case).
In early Buddhism, the term dharma primarily refers to one thing: the teachings of the Buddha. A path that you can follow - in thought, word and deed. Dharma is what you do to escape suffering. Dharma is ethical action, monastic discipline, meditation. A practical compass.
But the deeper Buddhism questions its own teachings across centuries and continents, the more the view shifts: What is this thing we call „the world“? What remains when we examine everything that rises and passes away?
The answer of later Buddhist philosophy is: nothing has an existence of its own. What we experience as „things“ are fleeting dharmas - Momentary phenomena, empty of lasting essence.
Dharmas are everything that is the case - and also everything that is not the case. They encompass the totality of all things, phenomena and processes - inside and outside, past, present and future.
They appear in space and time - and create space and time themselves. Nothing exists outside the dharmas. No place, no time, no thing is independent of everything else.
The dharma of doing becomes the analysis of the dharmas of the world. And at the end of this journey there is no longer any ultimate truth - only Room, where everything happens.
From dharma to dharmas
„I teach nothing other than the conditions of suffering; and I teach nothing other than the cessation of suffering.“
The Buddha suffered from his own life.
He looked for the causes of the suffering.
He found causes for suffering and a way out of suffering - and formulated his insight as „The Four Noble Truths“.
He had asked himself: „Why am I suffering?“
He had asked himself: „What exactly is there when I say: I suffer“?
and he found: „Nothing“.
Nothing that remains.
He only found change.
He condensed his image of man in the five skandhas - the five „collections“ or „bundles“ from which what we usually call the „I“ is experienced:
1st form (Rupa): The physical body and the material world.
2. sensation (Vedana): The perception of pleasant, unpleasant or neutral feelings.
3. perception (samjna): The ability to recognize and name sensory impressions.
4. mental formations (Samskara): Mental processes, intentions, will, desires and conditioned reactions.
5. awareness (Vijnana): The awareness and cognitive processing of experiences.
These five skandhas are impermanent and exist only in dependence on each other, which further refutes the illusion of a permanent self. The Buddha put it like this:
„All phenomena are transient“
and named this realization: Anicca3.
Anicca is one of the factors of existence that are known as Seal of Buddhism4 apply.
He formulated his realization of a constant, enduring „self“ that would also become manifest in the next life as follows:
„Every phenomenon is not mine, not me, not my self.“
and called this realization Anatta5There is only a „non-self, a non-ego or merely impersonality“.
Anatta is one of the factors of existence that are considered Seal of Buddhism apply.
This reveals the philosophical explosive power of early Buddhism: what we consider to be our self disintegrates into transient components on closer inspection. There is no unchanging self, but only a conditional stream of phenomena.
The explosive force of the Buddha's insights unfolded in the discussions and councils after the Buddha's death and exploded the Sangha and its ideas. New concepts and interpretations of the teachings and their application emerged over the next few centuries.
The parallels with quantum physics and systems theory, both of which describe the world as a network of reciprocal relationships, are astounding.
Similar to the skandhas, which only exist in interdependence, quantum mechanics describes that particles do not exist independently of their interactions, but only take shape through their relations and observations.
The astonishing parallels between Buddhist teachings and modern systems research remain an exciting field - one that we will explore further elsewhere.
The following diagram shows the development of Buddhist literature and concepts from the oral tradition to the great philosophical works of the Mahayana, which were to change so much:
Abhidharma literature
As we have heard above, later Buddhist traditions emphasize the affiliation of the Abhidharma to the „Dharma in the narrower sense“ less than the Thearavadins.
There, the Abhidharma and the later Mahāyāna literature tend to belong to the Dharma in the broader sense - which is why the Abhidharma appears here again - as Abhidharma literature.
The analysis of the factors of existence was deepened in the Abhidharma literature. The phenomena were categorized in order to better understand their nature and function. A central aim of this analysis is to see through the illusion of a permanent self and to overcome attachment to such a self. By recognizing that all phenomena have no permanent self (anicca), we can experience how the world actually shows itself when we look closely - and ultimately achieve liberation from suffering.
Prajnaparamita Literature
A central current of Mahāyāna philosophy, which deepens this understanding and at the same time reduces it to absurdity, is the Prajnaparamita literature, in particular the Heart Sutra. This short but extremely influential Sūtra expresses the doctrine of emptiness (sunyata) in its most radical form. It declares that not only is the self empty of inherent existence, but also the five skandhas - all the building blocks of experience - are ultimately empty. The famous line „Form is emptiness, emptiness is form“ makes it clear that form and emptiness are not separate states, but two perspectives of the same reality.
In its radical nature, the Heart Sūtra even questions the foundations of the Buddha's teachings, the Four Noble Truths:
There is „...no suffering,
not a cause of suffering,
no exemption,
no way...“
While the abhidharma literature attempted to break reality down into its smallest components in order to analyze its nature, the Heart Sūtra points out that such a distinction is meaningless, as all phenomena do not exist by themselves. This links the Heart Sūtra with Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy, which questions every assumption about the inherent existence of things. This radical view had a far-reaching influence on Zen Buddhism and other Mahayana traditions.
Indra's net
A vivid image for this mutual connection is the metaphor of Indra's net6, a concept from the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.
This network consists of countless jewels that are located at each node of the network. Each of these jewels reflects all the other jewels in the net, making each individual element inseparable from all the others. This illustrates the Buddhist insight that no phenomenon exists in isolation, but that each thing is defined by its interactions with all other things.
Indra's network illustrates not only the emptiness of all phenomena, but also their interpenetration and interdependence - an image that has astonishing parallels in modern scientific theories such as systems theory, network theory and quantum physics.
Outlook
On the edge of uncertainty: the return to suffering
What began as a practical path - the Dharma as a teaching of the Buddha - has been transformed over the centuries into a radical insight into the nature of reality.
At the end of this journey, no „substance“ remains, no firm hold - neither an ego nor a thing to which we could cling.
Dharma remains the path - ethical action, practicing, letting go. But our view of the world has changed: We live in a web of dharmas that come and go, are interdependent and empty.
For us today, this means that Buddhist practice is not just ethics and meditation - it is also an invitation to constantly see the world anew. Not as a rigid structure of things, but as a living interplay of conditions and reflections.
In an age characterized by clinging, identity and possessions, Buddhism reminds us that real freedom arises when we no longer consider things to be fixed.
The dharmas are empty - and therein lies the possibility for change, for compassion, for wisdom.
The Dharma path does not lead to nothingness. It leads to a space in which anything can happen.
What does all this mean today - in a world that is crumbling? At a time when we feel every day that the certainties we believed in are disintegrating: political orders, social cohesion, even the climate that sustains us.
Perhaps the most disturbing thing about the Buddhist insight is that it offers no comforting alternative world. No „true core“ that we can hold on to. No fixed identity, no eternal self, no unshakeable truth. Only this: everything is conditional, everything passes away.
And that is precisely what hurts so much - what frightens us so much today. This world, which no longer gives us any guarantees, touches the same nerve that the Buddha named 2500 years ago: Dukkha - the suffering from the fact that nothing stays the same; that we are confronted with old age, illness and death; that we have to live together with people or things we don't like; and that we don't get what we want.
The Buddha, the lineage, the masters of the past challenge us today to stop fleeing, to stop desperately searching for a foothold, but to understand this emptiness as an open space. A space in which everything remains possible - including compassion, wisdom and action that reconnects the world.
Which will be discussed later.
FAQ
Frequently asked questions about Dharma
On this website, this symbol of a wheel - steering wheel, wagon wheel - always appears when it comes to teaching. What is it all about?
The Dharma Wheel (Sanskrit: dharmacakra, Pali: dhammacakka) is one of the oldest and best-known symbols of Buddhism. It stands for the Teaching of the Buddha and the movement of the Dharma in the world - just as a wheel turns and sets the cart in motion.
The origin of this symbol lies in the Buddha's first discourse, the so-called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in the Samyutta Nikaya (SN 56.11 | Source 1 - Dr. Hellmuth Hecker | Source 2 - Sabbamitta). There it is reported that with the proclamation of the Four Noble Truths by the Buddha, the wheel of teaching was set in motion.
It is said that after this speech the earth gods cried out:
„The Exalted One has set in motion at Benares [...] the incomparable wheel of teaching, and no ascetic, no Brahmin, no god, no Mara, no Brahma, nor anyone in the world can stand against it.“
Samyutta-Nikaya 56.1
The Buddha gave this first discourse to his five companions, who had practiced asceticism with him for several years and to whom he first reported his insight. This discourse took place in the wildlife park of Isipatana (today near Varanasi). This place was then known as a forest area with many deer and antelopes - a protected retreat for animals and ascetics. It has therefore become traditional to depict the Dharma Wheel between two gazelles - usually resting or standing, facing each other.
The Dharma wheel is often seen on flags (including national flags such as the flags of India, Sri Lanka or Tibet), temple walls or statues - as a reminder that the Dharma will continue to roll as long as people practice, teach and recognize.
What does the wheel mean?
The center (hub) stands for centering, collection, the unmoved.
The spokes (often 8) symbolize the Eightfold Path.
The edge holds everything together - how mindfulness and wisdom hold our lives together.
Interestingly, the terms dukkha (Leiden) and sukkha (well-being) is linguistically related to the image of the wheel. Its presumed origin lies in ancient Indian chariot making: the word kha refers to the axle hub of a wagon - i.e. the central opening through which the axle is guided.
- Dukkha therefore consists of you- („bad“) and -kha („axle, hub“): a wheel with a warped or broken axle that bumps, jams or runs with difficulty. It stands for the feeling of life when you are fighting against reality.
- Sukkha consists of su- („good“) and -kha: a wheel with a smooth, well-fitting axle that turns freely and evenly - symbolizing a life in harmony with the Dharma.
The Dharma wheel thus becomes a symbol not only of the teaching itself, but also of its transformative effect:
When life no longer works against itself, but is in flow, the wheel begins to turn freely - stagnation and suffering cease, and movement and freedom can arise.
In German we usually say „the Dharma“. The word comes from Sanskrit, where it is a neutral noun, and this grammatical form is usually adopted in German. In Buddhist texts and contexts, „the Dharma“ is therefore the common and correct form - as is „the Dharmas“ as a plural form when talking about individual phenomena.
„The Dharma is the teaching of the Buddha.“
„The dharmas in the Abhidharma describe elements of experience.“
Dharma is derived from the root dhṛ which means „to carry“, „to hold“ or „to support“. Originally, it means that which supports the world, creates cohesion or provides stability - both in an ethical and existential sense.
The Duden also allows the masculine form „the Dharma“ and indicates that the word has no plural. This variant originates primarily from Hindu usage, where Dharma is often used in the sense of duty, righteousness or world order.
In the Buddhist context, however, the neutral form „the Dharma“ is clearly preferred.
Note: we have not used the article correctly and congruently on this website either. We will do this from now on - and gradually clean up the old blog posts from unclear „the“, „the“ and „the".„.
Dharma is a central term in Buddhism and means something like „teaching“, „truth“ or „law“. In Sanskrit it means Dharma, in Pali, the language of early Buddhism, it reads Dhamma - both mean the same thing, just in a different linguistic form.
The Plural „Dharmas“ is usually used when speaking of the individual components of reality, as analyzed in the Abhidharma, for example. In this context Dharmas the smallest elements of experience, such as sensory impressions, thoughts or feelings.
So in a nutshell, that's the distinction:
Dharma (Sanskrit) = the Buddhist doctrine.
Dhamma (Pali) = same meaning, different language.
Dharmas = individual phenomena or aspects of reality.
Neither - or perhaps both. Buddhism says Dharma for the teachings of the Buddha and the path to liberation from suffering. This is not about Faith, but to own insight and experience.
Some see the Dharma as a philosophy because it poses fundamental questions about life, suffering and the self. Others call it a religion because it offers ethical guidance and spiritual depth. However, the Buddhist Dharma does not fit neatly into Western categories.
It is best understood as Path of practiceWhat leads to suffering? What liberates from it? The Buddha himself urged us to examine his teachings critically - like gold in the fire - and to trust not him but our own experience:
„Do not rely on me and my words. Recognize through your own insight what is beneficial - and live accordingly.“
according to the Kālāma Sutta, Anguttara-Nikāya 3.65
And shortly before his death, he reminded his pupil of this:
„Be yourselves the light, take the Dharma as your refuge.“
Karma (literally: „action“) originally comes from Vedic thought. There, it primarily meant ritual merit: those who perform the right sacrificial acts can secure good fortune and a better rebirth. This was an integral part of a religious worldview based on order, duty and cosmic reciprocity.
The Buddha takes up the term - and radically realigns it. For him, karma is not the external action, but the inner intention behind every action. The decisive factor is therefore not, what one does, but Why you do it
„I say it's Will (cetana), which means Karma is.
By willing, you act - with body, speech or mind.“
Dharma in turn shows the way to wholesome action: mindful, compassionate, free from greed, hatred and delusion. This is how dharma and karma work together: Dharma is orientation and compass; karma is the concrete work in this world.
I went looking for more information about the „baskets“ - but the results were meager and I'll summarize them this way:
It is unlikely that there are any concrete images or finds of the original „baskets“ from the 1st century BC, as these were probably made from perishable materials such as bamboo or palm leaves. The „three baskets“ of the Tripitaka refer symbolically to the three main parts of the Buddhist canon. One can imagine that they were simple, functional containers adapted to the size of the palm leaf manuscripts, possibly elongated or flat, woven baskets. Later depictions are more symbolic.
Footnotes
- Majihima Nikaya 22 - The Parable of the Cobra; source: https://suttacentral.net/mn22/de/
The Buddha made similar statements in other places in the Pali canon, e.g. here:
„Good, good, Anuradha! This only, O Anuradha, I proclaim, both in the past and today: suffering and the cessation of suffering.“
Samyutta Nikaya 44.2 Anuradha Sutta; identical with Samyutta Nikaya 22.86. Anuradha - 4th Anurādha Sutta; source: https://www.palikanon.com/samyutta/sam22_090.html#s22_86 | ︎ - In the Mahavamsa (The Great Chronicle of Ceylon), chapter 33, verses 100-101, the writing of the Pali canon under King Vattagamani Abhaya is described:
„At that time, the most outstanding of the Thera monks wrote down the teachings and commentaries because they saw that the people were dwindling.“
Source: to be found here: archive.org | ︎ - Anicca (impermanence): in Majjhima Nikāya 111, the Buddha describes how his disciple Sāriputta examined mental states in meditative contemplation: how they arise, persist - and pass away. Even noble qualities such as rapture, equanimity or mindfulness are not permanent. This precise observation makes the teachings of Anicca alive and tangible - not as an article of faith, but as a direct insight:
„And the states of the second absorption - tranquillization, rapture, bliss, and one-pointedness of mind; contact, feeling, perception, will, and mind; ardour, resolve, energy, mindfulness, equanimity, and heedfulness - are the states of the second absorption. these states were circumscribed by him, one by one; those states arose and he had knowledge of them, they were present and he had knowledge of them, they disappeared and he had knowledge of them. He understood: ‚So these states actually appear after not being present before; after being present, they disintegrate.‘ With regard to those states he dwelled without being attracted, without being repelled, independent, unattached, free, detached, with an unbounded heart. He understood: ‚There is an escape beyond,‘ and with the cultivation of that state of attainment he confirmed that there is.“
Source: https://www.palikanon.com/majjhima/zumwinkel/m111z.html | ︎ - The Three Seals of Buddhism are the standard by which any teaching or assertion can be measured to see if it corresponds to the Buddha Dharma. They describe the fundamental nature of all existence:
Anicca - Transience
Everything that is put together is impermanent. Nothing remains as it is - neither thoughts, feelings, bodies nor external things.
Dukkha - suffering
Because everything is fleeting, holding on or clinging can never bring lasting happiness.
Suffering arises when we are attached to things that change.
Anatta - not-self
There is no such thing as an unchanging, independent self. What we perceive as „I“ is an interplay of changing processes.
You can summarize it like this: Buddhism can only be found where all three seals are on it at the same time. | ︎ - Anatta (not-self): In the Anattalakkhana Sutta (The Characteristics of Non-Self) - Samyuta Nikaya (SN 22.59), the Buddha guides his 5 friends from his ascetic past to the realization that no enduring „I“ or „self“ exists in this body:
„Is form (rūpa) permanent or transient?“
- „Ephemeral, Lord.“
„What is transient - does it bring happiness or suffering?“
- „Sorry, sir.“
„What is transient, painful and subject to change - can we rightly say: ‚This is mine, this is me, this is my self‘?“
- „No, sir.“
So the Buddha continues to ask one after the other in relation to:
Form (rupa)
Feeling (vedana)
Perception (sanna)
Shapes (sankhara)
Consciousness (vinnana)
and finally the five companions agree with him:
„...whatever there is of corporeality-of feeling-of perception-of fabrications-of consciousness, be it past, future, or present, proper or foreign, gross or subtle, common or noble, far or near-applies to every corporeality-every feeling-every perception-every fabrication-every consciousness: ‚This is not mine, this is not me, this is not my self!‘ This must be viewed with the right wisdom in accordance with reality.“
Source: https://mail.dhammatalks.net/suttacentral/sc2016/sc/de/sn22.59.html | ︎ - The Buddha in the 30th book of the Buddhavatamsaka Sutras has a similar idea:
„When countless Buddha lands are reduced to atoms,
are countless countries in one atom, and as in one, so in each.
The atoms to which these Buddha lands are reduced in an instant are inexpressible,
and so are the atoms of the continuous reduction from moment to moment, which has been going on for immeasurable eons;
These atoms contain an unspeakable number of countries, and the atoms in these countries are even more difficult to describe.“
Source: Wikipedia Indras Net | ︎
